The majestic and impregnable monastic fortresses of Western Europe of the 11th – 12th centuries are vivid examples of Romanesque architectural style. Distinguished by solidity and monumentality, they make extensive use of elements of ancient Roman construction, modifying them to the needs of that time and, at the same time, lay their foundations for the next, ...

Style story

In the era of the early Middle Ages, to which, in fact, belongs to the Romanesque architectural style, a complete feudal fragmentation was observed on European territory. As a result, the instability of political relations. Constant military threats have caused architecture to become the dominant art form. More precisely - castle and fortification construction.

Any buildings that have at least some significance: houses of feudal lords, temples, monasteries - were erected in the form of peculiar fortifications. They were entrusted with the tasks of not only providing a certain aesthetic perception, but also guaranteeing the maximum safety of those inside.
  Due to its practicality and monumentality, the Romanesque style was the first architectural trend that spread throughout Catholic Europe.

Conceptual features of the Romanesque style

For historical buildings in the Romanesque style, the following features are characteristic:

1. the dominance of rough stone;
2. conciseness of the exterior;
3. the severity of architectural forms;
4. massive walls;
5. narrow window openings;
6. in-depth step portals;
7. tiled roofs of complex configuration.

With a carefully thought-out arrangement, such structures always harmoniously fit into the surrounding landscape, giving the impression of solidity and absolute security.

Modern interpretation of the Romanesque style

Despite its historical roots, any architectural style in the process of its development is inevitably supplemented by modern design techniques that determine its compliance with new standards and needs.
  Today, a country house in the Romanesque style, as before, is more like medieval castle. This is a stylistically sustained structure that harmoniously combines the latest architectural achievements with traditional canons.
Such a mansion is a kind of embodiment of a romantic dream.
  There is no strict symmetry in the layout of the corresponding architectural compositions. Majesty, solidity and practicality are being put in the first place.

Construction Materials

The traditional material for building a house in the Romanesque style is natural stone. Taking into account modern requirements, it is naturally replaced by a brick, often complemented by appropriate finishes.

As a facing material, rough, rusted stone or its imitation, up to the corresponding plaster, is usually used. Such decor can cover the entire surface of the facade or, to give solidity, highlight the most significant architectural fragments - a basement, corners, cornices, friezes, portals.

Buildings are still characterized by massiveness and large, voluminous forms. No architectural excesses, decorative elements are minimized. They are functional and balanced. Only noble severity and laconic simplicity, instilling calm and creating a feeling of complete security.

Important details

Castle houses, made in the Romanesque style, usually have at least two floors, not including the basement. The walls are always thick, massive. The entire structure seems to be assembled from different geometric volumes. The veranda, garage and other necessary buildings are built close to the house, being its integral parts.

  Rounded segments (apse) and towers with transitions can be considered characteristic features of the style. The latter can play the role of balconies, or perform exclusively decorative functions.
  A spectacular addition to the exterior of the building is stone parapets with an even alternation of high and low masonry.

Roof

One of the recognizable elements of the Romanesque architectural style is the roof. It is multi-slope, always has a complex shape. In its composition, as a rule, there are conical, and gable, and gable elements. The tiles are usually coated: classic ceramic or modern bitumen.

Windows and doors

Window and doorways in Romanesque castle buildings are traditionally rectangular, less commonly arched. As a rule, they are not wide, elongated, located as high as possible from the ground. This is explained by the fact that initially they did not provide for glazing. Frames - wooden, with a minimum number of jumpers. Forged accents include wrought iron grates or wooden shutters.

Doors for full compliance with style should be strong and massive. Their importance and solidity is emphasized by archivolts with simple floral ornaments. Strengthen the feeling of reliability will help the elements of aged, rough forging.

The central entrance group is often decorated with columns and semicircular arched structures, creating a convenient space for organizing a closed terrace.

Color scheme

The color palette used to decorate houses in the Romanesque style is as close to natural as possible. These are unobtrusive, natural colors in harmony with the surrounding landscape.
  The facade is carried out, as a rule, in stony gray or clay-beige colors. On the roof you can often find ash-brown or gray-green shades.

Environment

Regardless of the chosen architectural style of buildings, no site will look harmonious without a carefully thought-out landscape environment. For a modern reproduction of the Romanesque castle, an ideal backdrop can be a landscape composition decorated.

The main advantage of castle-type houses is their individuality. Recreating the romantic atmosphere of the Middle Ages on the site, such projects are never typical. They are always carried out in strict accordance with the requirements of the customer, taking into account his preferences and personal outlook on history.

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The Romanesque style (Latin romanus - Roman) is the artistic style that prevailed in Western Europe in the X-XII centuries.
He became one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.

Cathedral, 11th century, Trier

The term "Romanesque style" appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, when it was established that the architecture of the 11th-12th centuries used elements of ancient Roman architecture, for example, such as semicircular arches, arches. In general, the term is conditional and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it came into general use.

The Romanesque style took shape in the countries of Central and Western Europe and spread throughout. XI century usually regarded as the time of the "early", and XII century. - "Mature" Romanesque art. However, the chronological framework of the dominance of the Romanesque style in individual countries and regions does not always coincide. So, in the north-east of France, the last third of the XII century. already refers to the Gothic period, while in Germany and Italy the characteristic features of Romanesque art continued to dominate for a considerable part of the 13th century.

"Romanesque art seems rude and wild when compared with the sophistication of the Byzantines, but this is a style of great nobility."

Monastery, XI-XII centuries Ireland

“Classical” of all, this style will be spread in the art of Germany and France. The leading role in the art of this period belonged to architecture. Romanesque structures are very diverse in type, design features and decor. This medieval architecture was created for the needs of the church and chivalry, and the leading types of structures are churches, monasteries, castles.

The cultural centers of this era remained monasteries and churches. The religious architecture embodied the Christian religious idea. The temple, which had the form of a cross in plan, symbolized the way of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering and redemption. Each part of the building was assigned special significance, for example, the pillars and columns supporting the vault symbolized the apostles and prophets - the pillar of Christian teaching.

Gradually, the service became more and more magnificent and solemn. Architects over time changed the design of the temple: they began to increase the eastern part of the temple, in which the altar was located. In the apse - the altar ledge - there was usually an image of Christ or Our Lady, below were placed the images of angels, apostles, saints. On the western wall were the scenes of the Last Judgment. The lower part of the wall was usually decorated with ornaments.

The most consistent Roman art was formed in France - in Burgundy, Auvergne, Provence and Normandy.

Urban architecture, with rare exceptions, did not receive as wide a development as monastic architecture. In most countries, the main customers were monastery orders, in particular, such powerful ones as the Benedictine, and the builders and workers were monks. Only at the end of the XI century. artifacts of lay stonemasons appeared - at the same time builders and sculptors, moving from place to place. However, the monasteries were able to attract various masters to themselves and from the outside, requiring them to work in the manner of a pious duty.

Norman fortress, X-XI centuries. France

The spirit of militancy and the constant need for self-defense permeates Romanesque art. Castle-fortress or temple-fortress. "The castle is the fortress of a knight, the church is the fortress of God; God was conceived as a supreme feudal lord, fair, but merciless, bearing not peace but a sword. A stone building with watchtowers towering on a hill, wary and threatening with large-headed, large-armed statues, as if grown to the body of the temple and silently guarding it from enemies - this is a characteristic creation of Romanesque art. It feels a great inner strength, its artistic concept is simple and strict. "

Monuments of ancient Roman architecture remained in abundance in Europe: roads, aqueducts, fortress walls, towers, temples. They were so durable that they continued to be used for their intended purpose for a long time. In the combination of watch towers, military camps with Greek basilicas and Byzantine ornaments, a new "Roman" Romanesque architectural style emerged: simple and practical.

The material for the Romanesque buildings was the local stone, since its delivery from afar was almost impossible, due to impassability and because of the large number of internal borders that had to be crossed, paying high duties each time. The stones were hewed off by various craftsmen - one of the reasons that two identical details, such as capitals, are rarely found in medieval art. Each of them was performed by a separate stone-cutting artist, who, within the limits of the assignment he received, had some creative freedom. The hewn stone was laid in place on the mortar.

Saint Pierre Cathedral, Angouleme, France

Cathedral, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Capital in the parish church of Anzi le Duc

Master Gilbert. Eve. Saint-Lazare Cathedral in Autun

Tympanum of the church of Saint-Madeleine in Vezle. XII century

The ornamentation of Romanesque art was borrowed mainly in the East, it was based on the utmost generalization, "geometrization and schematization of the pictorial image. In everything, simplicity, power, strength, clarity were felt. Romanesque architecture is a typical example of rational artistic thinking."

The principles of Romanesque architecture received the most consistent and pure expression in religious complexes. The main monastery building was the church. Next to it was a courtyard surrounded by open colonnades - a cloister. Around the house were the abbot of the monastery (abbot), a bedroom for the monks (dormitorium), a refectory, a kitchen, a winery, a brewery, a bakery, warehouses, cribs, living quarters for workers, a doctor’s house, dwellings and a special kitchen for pilgrims, a school, a hospital, a cemetery .

Fontevro. View of the monastery from above. Founded in 1110 France

Cuisine at Fontevro Abbey

Cuisine in the abbey of Fontevro. Interior view

Temples typical of the Romanesque style most often develop an old basilical form. The Romanesque basilica is a three-nave (less often five-nave) longitudinal room, intersected by one, and sometimes two transepts. In a number of architectural schools, the eastern part of the church received further complication and enrichment: the choir, completed by a protrusion of absides, surrounded by radially diverging chapels (the so-called chaplet wreath). In some countries, mainly in France, a bypass chorus is being developed; the side naves, as it were, continue beyond the transept and go around the altar abs. Such a layout made it possible to regulate the flow of pilgrims who worshiped relics exhibited in absentia.

Cross section of the Doroman basilica (left) and the Romanesque temple

Chapel of St. John, Tower, London

3rd Church in Cluny (France), XI-XII centuries. Plan

In Romanesque churches, distinct spatial zones are clearly divided: the narthex, i.e. narthex, the longitudinal building of the basilica with its rich and detailed design, transepts, eastern absida, chapels. Such a layout quite logically continued the thought laid down in the layout of the early Christian basilicas, starting with the Cathedral of St. Petra: if a pagan temple was considered the dwelling of a deity, then Christian churches became the house of believers, built for a collective of people. But this team was not one. The priests were sharply opposed to the "sinful" laity and occupied the choir, that is, located behind the transept closest to the altar, the more honorable part of the temple. And in the part allotted to the laity, places were allocated for the feudal nobility. In this way, the unequal importance of various population groups in the face of a deity was emphasized.

Church of Saint-Etienne in Nevers (France). 1063-1097

Church of the Abbey of Saint-Philibert in Tournus

Church in Santiago de Compostela (Spain). OK. 1080 - 1211

When building churches, the most difficult was the problem of lighting and overlapping the main nave, since the latter was wider and higher than the side ones. Different schools of Romanesque architecture have solved this problem in different ways. The easiest way was to preserve the wooden floors according to the model of early Christian basilicas. The roofing on the rafters was relatively light, did not cause lateral expansion and did not require powerful walls; this made it possible to place a tier of windows under the roof. So it was built in many places in Italy, in Saxony, the Czech Republic, in the early Norman school in France.

Vaults: cylindrical, cylindrical on formwork, cross, cross on ribs, closed. Scheme

Cathedral in Le Puy (France), XI-XII centuries. Vaulted ceiling of the central nave

However, the advantages of wooden floors did not stop architects in the search for other solutions. The Roman style is characterized by the overlapping of the main nave with a massive arch of wedge-shaped stones. Such an innovation created new artistic opportunities.

Apparently, the cylindrical arch first appeared, sometimes with supporting arches in the main nave. Its spread was removed not only by massive walls, but also by creotus vaults in the side naves. Since the architects of the early period did not have experience and self-confidence, the middle nave was built narrow, relatively low; they also did not dare to loosen the walls with wide window openings. Therefore, the early Romanesque churches inside are dark.

Over time, the middle naves began to do higher, the arches took on a slightly lancet shape, a tier of windows appeared under the arches. For the first time this probably happened in the constructions of the Cluni school in Burgundy.

With the disappearance of the rationalistic foundations of the ancient worldview, the order system loses its significance, although the name of the new style comes from the word "Romus" - Roman, since the Roman semicircular arched cell is the cornerstone of the architectural design.

However, instead of order tectonics in Romanesque architecture, the main thing is the tectonics of a powerful wall - the most important constructive and artistic expressive means. This architecture is based on the principle of combining separate closed and independent volumes, subordinate, but also clearly delineated, each of which is itself a small fortress. These are structures with heavy arches, heavy towers, cut through narrow windows-loopholes, and massive ledges of walls made of ashlar. They clearly capture the idea of \u200b\u200bself-defense and impregnable power, which is quite explainable during the feudal fragmentation of the principalities of Europe, the isolation of economic life, the absence of commercial, economic and cultural ties, during the time of continuous feudal disputes and wars.

For the interior of many Romanesque churches, a typical clear division of the middle nave wall into three tiers is typical. The first tier is occupied by semicircular arches that separate the main nave from the side. Above the arches stretches the expanse of the wall, providing enough space for painting or decorative arcade on the columns - the so-called triforme. Finally, the windows form the upper tier. Since the windows usually had a semicircular end, the side wall of the middle nave consisted of three tiers of arcades (nave arches, triforium arches, window arches), given in clear rhythmic alternation and precisely calculated scale relations. Squat arches of the nave were replaced by a more harmonious arcade of triforium, and that, in turn, was rarely located arches of high windows.

The division of the wall of the middle nave in the churches: St. Michael's Church in Hildeheim (Germany, 1010 - 1250), Notre Dame in Jumiège (France, 1018 - 1067), as well as the Cathedral in Worms (Germany, 1170-1240)

Cathedral in Mainz, Germany

Often the second tier is formed not by triforium, but by arches of the so-called empor, i.e. opening to the main nave of the gallery located above the arches of the side naves. The light in the emporium came either from the central nave, or, more often, from the windows in the outer walls of the side nave, to which the emporos adjoined.

The visual impression of the inner space of the Romanesque churches was determined by simple and clear numerical relationships between the width of the main and side naves. In some cases, architects sought to create an exaggerated idea of \u200b\u200bthe scale of the interior by artificially reducing perspective: they reduced the width of the arched spans as they moved to the eastern part of the church (for example, in the church of Saint Trofim in Arles). Sometimes arches decreased in height.

The appearance of the Romanesque churches is characterized by the massiveness and geometricity of architectural forms (parallelepiped, cylinder, half cylinder, cone, pyramid). Walls strictly isolate the interior from the environment. At the same time, it is always possible to notice the efforts of architects to express in an external form the internal structure of the church; outside, not only the different heights of the main and side naves are usually clearly distinguished, but also the division of space into separate cells. So, pillars, foundations, dividing the interior of the naves correspond to buttresses attached to the outer walls. The harsh truthfulness and clarity of architectural forms, the pathos of their unshakable stability make up the main artistic merit of Romanesque architecture.

Abbey Maria Laach, Germany

Romanesque buildings were mostly tiled, known even by the Romans, and convenient in areas with a rainy climate. The thickness and strength of the walls were the main criteria for the beauty of the building. The severe masonry of hewn stones created a somewhat "gloomy" image, but was decorated with interspersed bricks or small stones of a different color. The windows were not glazed, but were taken by carved stone bars, the window openings were small and rose high above the ground, so the rooms in the building were very dark. Stone carvings adorned the exterior walls of the cathedrals. It consisted of a floral ornament, images of fairy-tale monsters, exotic animals, animals, birds - motifs, also brought from the East. The walls of the cathedral inside were completely covered with murals, which, however, almost did not survive to our time. Marble inlaid mosaics were also used to decorate the apse and altars, the technique of which has been preserved since antiquity.

V. Vlasov writes that Roman art "is characterized by the absence of any specific program in the placement of decorative motifs: geometric," animal ", biblical - they are interspersed in the most bizarre way. Sphinxes, centaurs, griffins, lions and harpies coexist peacefully nearby Most experts believe that all this phantasmagoric fauna lacks the symbolic meaning that they often attribute to it and has a predominantly decorative character.

Church of San Isidoro. Tomb of the kings. Around 1063 - 1100 Leon. Spain.

Frontales

Image of Christ from the Church of St. Clement in Taul. C. 1123

So, in the XI-XII centuries. at the same time, in architecture and in close connection with it, monumental painting developed and monumental sculpture was revived after several centuries of almost complete oblivion. The fine art of the Romanesque period was almost completely subordinated to the religious worldview. Hence its symbolic character, conventions of receptions and stylization of forms. In the image of a human figure, proportions were often violated, folds of robes were interpreted arbitrarily, regardless of the actual plasticity of the body. However, both in painting and in sculpture, along with the emphasized planar decorative perception of the figure, images were widely used, in which the masters conveyed the material weight and volume of the human body, though in schematic and conventional forms. Figures of typically Romanesque composition are in a space devoid of depth; there is no sensation of distance between them. Their variability is striking, and the sizes depend on the hierarchical significance of the one who is depicted: for example, the figures of Christ are much higher than the figures of angels and apostles; those, in turn, are larger than images of mere mortals. In addition, the interpretation of figures is directly dependent on the divisions and forms of the architecture itself. The figures placed in the middle of the tympanum are larger than those in the corners; statues on friezes are usually squat, while statues located on pillars and columns have elongated proportions. Such an adaptation of the proportions of the body, contributing to a greater cohesion of architecture, sculpture and painting, at the same time limited the imaginative possibilities of art. Therefore, in stories of a narrative nature, the story was limited only to the most significant. The ratio of the actors and the scene is not designed to create a real image, but to schematically designate individual episodes, the convergence and juxtaposition of which part is symbolic. In accordance with this, episodes of different times were placed side by side, often in the same composition, and the scene was given conditionally. Romanesque art is sometimes inherent in crude, but always sharp expressiveness. These characteristic features of Roman fine art often led to an exaggeration of the gesture. But within the framework of the medieval conventions of art, lively correctly captured details suddenly appeared - a peculiar turn of the figure, a characteristic type of face, and sometimes a everyday motive. In the secondary parts of the composition, where the requirements of iconography did not constrain the artist’s initiative, there are a lot of such naive-realistic details. However, these direct manifestations of realism are private. Basically in the art of the Roman period dominated by love for everything fantastic, often gloomy, monstrous. It also manifests itself in the choice of plots, for example, in the prevalence of scenes borrowed from the cycle of tragic visions of the Apocalypse.

Lion hugging a lamb

In the field of monumental painting, fresco prevailed everywhere, with the exception of Italy, where the traditions of mosaic art were preserved. A book miniature was widely distributed, characterized by high decorative qualities. An important place was occupied by sculpture, especially the relief. The main material of the sculpture was stone, in Central Europe mainly local sandstone, in Italy and some other southern areas - marble. Bronze castings and wood sculptures were also used, but not universally. Wood and stone works, not excluding monumental sculptures on the facades of churches, were usually painted. It is rather difficult to judge the nature of the coloring due to the scarcity of sources and the almost complete disappearance of the original coloring of the preserved monuments.

Church of St. Apostles San Miniato al Monte in Florence. Altar. 1013 - 1063 years

In the Roman period, ornamental art with an extraordinary richness of motives played an exceptional role. Its sources are very diverse: the legacy of the "barbarians", antiquity, Byzantium, Iran and even the Far East. Conductors of borrowed forms were imported products of applied art and miniature. Images of all kinds of fantastic creatures enjoyed special love. The uneasiness of the style and dynamism of the forms of this art clearly shows the remnants of folk representations of the era of "barbarism" with its primitive attitude. However, in the Roman period, these motifs seemed to dissolve in the greatest solemnity of the architectural whole.

The art of sculpture and painting was associated with art book thumbnails  whose heyday falls on the Romanesque era.

The baptism of Christ. Thumbnail of Benedictal Ethelwold. 973-980

V. Vlasov believes that it is incorrect to consider Romanesque art as a "purely Western style." Connoisseurs, such as E. Viollet-le-Duc, saw strong Asian, Byzantine and Persian influences in Romanesque art. The very formulation of the question "West or East" in relation to the Roman era is incorrect. In the preparation of pan-European medieval art, the beginning of which was early Christian, followed by Romanesque and highest rise - Gothic art, the main role was played by the Greco-Celtic sources, Romanesque, Byzantine, Greek, Persian and Slavic elements. "The development of Romanesque art received new impulses during the reign Charlemagne (768-814) and in connection with the foundation in 962 of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I (936-973).

Architects, painters, sculptors revived the traditions of the ancient Romans, receiving education in monasteries, where the traditions of ancient culture were carefully preserved for centuries.

In cities and monasteries, artistic skill developed intensively. Vessels, lamps, stained-glass windows were made of glass - colored and colorless, the geometric pattern of which was created by lead jumpers, but the stained-glass window flourished later, in the era of the Gothic style.

Stained glass window "St. George"

Ivory carving was popular; caskets, caskets, and salaries for handwritten books were made in this technique. The technique of notched enamel on copper and gold was developed.

Ivory. C. 1180

Romanesque art is characterized by the widespread use of iron and bronze, from which lattices, rails, locks, figured hinges, etc. were made. Doors with reliefs were cast and minted from bronze. The furniture was extremely simple in design and was decorated with carvings of geometric shapes: round rosettes, semicircular arches, furniture was painted with bright colors. The semicircular arch motif is typical of Romanesque art; in the Gothic era it will be replaced by a pointed, lancet form.

Features of local national schools.

It should be emphasized that feudal fragmentation, poor development of exchange, the relative isolation of cultural life and the stability of local building traditions have identified a wide variety of Romanesque architectural schools.

The Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in the Monastery of Cluny (1088-1131) is a typical example of French Romanesque architecture. Small fragments of this building have been preserved. This monastery was called the "second Rome." It was the largest church in Europe. The length of the temple was one hundred twenty-seven meters, the height of the central nave - over thirty meters. Five towers crowned the temple. To maintain such a magnificent shape and size of the building, special supports are introduced at the outer walls - buttresses.

Norman churches are deprived of decor, but, unlike the Burgundian ones, the transept in them is one-nave. They have well-lit naves and tall towers, and their general appearance resembles fortresses rather than churches.

In the architecture of Germany at that time there was a special type of church - majestic and massive. Such is the Cathedral in Speyer (1030 - between 1092 and 1106), one of the largest in Western Europe, a striking symbol of the Otton Empire.

Cathedral in Speyer (1030 - between 1092 and 1106)

Plan of the Speyer Cathedral

Feudalism developed in Germany later than in France; its development was longer and deeper. The same can be said of German art. In the first Romanesque cathedrals, similar to fortresses, with smooth walls and narrow windows, with squat conically completed towers in the corners of the western facade and apses from both the eastern and western sides, they had a severe, impregnable appearance. Only the arcuate belts under the eaves decorated smooth facades and towers (Worm Cathedral, 1181-1234). The Worm Cathedral is the powerful dominant of the longitudinal building, likening the temple to the ship. The side naves are lower than the central one, the transept crosses the longitudinal building, a massive tower over the middle cross, and the apse semicircle closes the temple from the east. There is nothing superfluous, destructive, veiling architectonic logic.

The architectural decor is very restrained - just arkaturs that emphasize the main lines.

Worms Cathedral

Romanesque churches are similar to the churches of the Otton period, i.e. early romance, but have a structural difference - the cross vaults.

The sculpture in the Roman period in Germany was placed inside the temples. On the facades, it is found only at the end of the XII century. These are mainly painted wooden crucifixes, decorations of lamps, fonts, tombstones. Images seem estranged from earthly existence, they are conditional, generalized.

Romanesque art of Italy developed differently. It always feels the connection with Ancient Rome that is not “broken” even in the Middle Ages.

Since the main force of historical development in Italy was cities, not churches, secular tendencies are more pronounced in its culture than other peoples. The connection with antiquity was expressed not only in copying antique forms, it was in a strong internal relationship with the images of ancient art. Hence the "sense of proportion and proportionality to man in Italian architecture, naturalness and vitality in combination with the nobility and grandeur of beauty in Italian plastic and painting."

The outstanding works of architecture in Central Italy include the famous complex in Pisa: a cathedral, a tower, a baptistery. It was created over time (in the 11th century the architect built Busquettoin the XII century. - architect Raynaldo) The most famous part of the complex is the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. Some researchers suggest that the tower leaned as a result of the subsidence of the foundation at the very beginning of the work, and then it was decided to leave it inclined.

In the cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova (1174-1189) one can feel a strong influence not only of Byzantium and the East, but also of western architecture.

Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova, Montreal

Interior of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova, Montreal

English architecture of the Romanesque period has much in common with French architecture: large sizes, high central naves, an abundance of towers. The conquest of England by the Normans in 1066 strengthened its ties with the continent, which influenced the formation of the Romanesque style in the country. Examples of this are the cathedrals in St. Albans (1077-1090), Peterborough (K. the 12th century) and others.

St Albans Cathedral

St Albans Cathedral

Fresco of St. Albans Cathedral

Sculptures of the Cathedral in Peterborough

From the 12th century in English temples appear ribbed vaults, which, however, are still of purely decorative significance. The large number of clergy engaged in English worship brings to life specific English features: an increase in the interior of the church in length and a shift of the transept to the middle, which led to an emphasis on the tower of the middle cross, always larger than the tower of the western facade. Most of the Romanesque English churches were rebuilt during the Gothic period, and therefore it is extremely difficult to judge their early appearance.

Romanesque art in Spain developed under the influence of Arab and French culture. XI-XII centuries for Spain, it was the time of the Reconquista - the time of civil strife, fierce religious battles. The harsh feudal character of Spanish architecture, formed in the conditions of incessant wars with the Arabs, the Reconquista - the war for the liberation of the territory of the country captured in 711-718 The war left a strong imprint on all the art of Spain at that time, first of all, it was reflected in architecture.

Like in no other country in Western Europe, the construction of castles and fortresses began in Spain. One of the earliest castles of the Romanesque period is the Royal Palace of Alcazar (9th century, Segovia). It has survived to our time. The palace stands on a high cliff surrounded by thick walls with many towers. At that time, cities were erected in a similar way.

In the religious buildings of Spain of the Roman period, there are almost no sculptural decorations. Temples have the appearance of impregnable fortresses. Monumental painting - frescoes played a large role: the paintings were carried out in bright colors with a clear contour pattern. Images were very expressive. Sculpture in Spain appeared in the XI century. These were decorations of capitals, columns, doors.

XII century - the "golden" century of Romanesque art, spread throughout Europe. But many artistic decisions of the new, Gothic era were already arising in it. The first to take this path was Northern France.

After the fall of Ancient Rome, European culture took several centuries to overcome the decline that came after the collapse of the ancient world. Term Roman style  (from the Latin. Roma or French. Romanesque), very conditional and inaccurate, arose in the first half of the XIX century. Historians and art historians drew attention to the fact that the art of the early Middle Ages outwardly resembles ancient Roman art.

Roman style  truly fused the various elements of Late Antique and Merovinian art (named after the Frankish Merovingian dynasty), Byzantium and the Middle East.

This style is most fully expressed in architecture. The buildings of this style are distinguished by the monumentality and rationality of the designs, the wide use of semicircular arches and arches, as well as multi-figured sculptural compositions. The Romanesque style left its mark on all other types of arts: monumental painting and sculpture, decorative and applied art. Products of that era were distinguished by their massiveness, simplicity of severe forms and bright multi-color.

Roman style formed in the era of feudal fragmentation, and therefore functional purpose romanesque architecture  - defense. This functional feature of this style determined the architecture of both secular and religious buildings and corresponded to the lifestyle of Western European people of that time. The formation of the Romanesque style was promoted by the significant role of monasteries as centers of pilgrimage and culture.

Romanesque style church - the main elements of architectural forms

In the feudal castle, which in the Roman era was the main type of secular architectural structures, the dominant position was occupied by a tower house, rectangular or multifaceted, the so-called donjon - a kind of fortress in the fortress. On the first floor of the donjon there were utility rooms, on the second - front rooms, on the third - living rooms of the castle owners, on the fourth - the dwelling of the guards and servants. Below there was usually a dungeon and a prison, on the roof - a gatehouse.

During the construction of the castle, its functionality was provided and artistic and aesthetic goals were least pursued. To ensure defense, castles were built, as a rule, in inaccessible places. The castle was surrounded by high stone (battlement) walls with towers, a moat filled with water, and a drawbridge.

Gradually, such castle architecture began to influence the city's rich houses, which were built on the same principles; some of them later spread to monastery and city construction: fortress walls, sentinel towers, city (monastery) gates. The medieval city, or rather, its center, intersected by two axes-highways. At their intersection were a market or cathedral square - the focus of public life of citizens. The rest of the space was built up spontaneously, however, the development was predominantly centrally concentric in nature, fitting into the city walls. It was during the XI-XII centuries. a characteristic type of medieval cramped city arose with narrow tall houses, each of which was a confined space. Sandwiched between neighboring buildings, with small iron-bound doors and windows shielded by strong shutters, the house included housing and utility rooms. Gutters were located along the curved narrow streets. Crowding of buildings, lack of water supply and sewage systems often led to terrible epidemics.

Examples of basic types of capitals, columns and pillars

Capital of the Column (Romanesque Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalene, Wesle, France - Vézelay Abbey, Basilique Ste-Madeleine)    Capitals of columns (Saint-Lazare Cathedral, Auetin, France - Cathédrale Saint-Lazare d "Autun)    Capital of a column (Lyon, France)

Portals and internal structure of temples

   Doorway, Le Puy Cathedral, France - Le Puy Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame du Puy)    Window in the Great Hall, Durham Castle, England - Durham Castle    Western window of Notre Dame Cathedral in Tournai, Belgium - Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Tournai ( fr.)    West Nave, Poitiers Church, France - The Église Saint Hilaire le Grand is a church in Poitiers ( fr.)    St. Michael's Church in Hildesheim, 1001-31, Germany - St. Michael "s Church at Hildeshe    Rochester Castle, England - Rochester Castle    Windsor Castle, England - Windsor Castle    Rialto Bridge, Venice, Italy - Rialto Bridge    Pisa Cathedral, Italy - Cathedral of Pisa    Church in Aulnay, 1140-70, France - Aulnay Church    Durham Cathedral, England - Durham Cathedral    White Tower, St. Chapel John - Tower of London, St. John "s Chapel    Oratorio of Germainy-des-Prés, 806, France - Germigny-des-Prés    Le Puy Cathedral, France - Le Puy Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame du Puy)    Rochester Castle, interior - Rochester Castle, Interior    Maria Laach Abbey, Germany - Maria Laach Abbey    Tewkesbury Abbey, England - Tewkesbury Abbey    Kilpeck Village Church, England, Doorway - Kilpeck Church    Western portal of the Cathedral of St. Martin in Worms, Germany - Kathedrale St. Martin zu Worms ( him.)

The most significant building of Romanesque architecture is the temple (cathedral). The influence of the Christian church on the spiritual and secular life of that time was enormous.

Religious architecture developed under the strong influence (depending on local conditions) of ancient, Byzantine or Arabic art. The power and severe simplicity of the appearance of the Romanesque churches were generated by concerns about their strength and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe superiority of the spiritual principle over the physical one. The outlines of the forms are dominated by simple vertical or horizontal lines, as well as semicircular Roman arches. The task of achieving strength and at the same time facilitating the construction of the arches was accomplished by creating cross arches formed by two segments of semicircular arches of equal radius intersecting at right angles. The Romanesque style temple most often develops the ancient Christian basilica inherited from the Romans, which formed a Latin cross in terms of plan.

Massive towers become a characteristic element of the exterior, and the entrance is formed by a portal (from the Latin port - the door) in the form of embedded walls and decreasing in the future semicircular arches (the so-called perspective portal).

The internal layout and size of the Romanesque temple met cultural and social needs. The temple could accommodate a mass of people of various classes. The presence of naves (usually three) made it possible to distinguish between parishioners in accordance with their position in society. The arcades, which came into use in Byzantine architecture, have spread in Romanesque architecture.

In Romanesque architecture, the heels of arches rested directly on capitals, which was almost not done in antiquity. However, such a technique was widespread during the Italian Renaissance. The column of Romanesque style lost its anthropomorphic significance, as was customary in ancient times. All columns now have a strictly cylindrical shape without entasis, which was later inherited by Gothic. The shape of the capital developed the Byzantine type - the intersection of the cube and the ball. In the future, it became more simplified, becoming conical. The thickness and strength of the walls, simple masonry with almost no cladding (in contrast to the ancient Roman) are the main criteria for the construction.

In Romanesque cult architecture, sculptural plastic became widespread, which in the form of a relief covered the planes of walls or the surface of capitals. Compositions of such reliefs, as a rule, are planar, they do not have a sense of depth. The sculptural decoration in the form of a relief was located, in addition to walls and capitals, on the tympanums of portals and archival vaults of arches. In such reliefs, the principles of Romanesque plasticity are most clearly reflected: emphasized graphics and linearity.

The outer walls of the cathedrals were also decorated with stone carvings of floral, geometric and zoomorphic ornaments (fantastic monsters, exotic animals, animals, birds, etc.). The main decor of the cathedral was located on the main facade and inside, at the altar, located on a hill. Decoration was carried out using sculptural images, which were brightly colored.

Monumental generalization of forms, deviations from real proportions, due to which a particular created image often becomes a carrier of an exaggeratedly expressive gesture or an element of ornamentation, are typical of Roman plastic.

In the early Romanesque style, before the walls and vaults received a more complex configuration (late 11th – early 12th centuries), monumental reliefs became the leading type of temple decoration, wall painting played a major role. Marble inlay and mosaic, a technology of execution, which has been preserved since antiquity, were also widely used.

Sculptural reliefs and wall paintings sought to give instructive meaning. The central place here was occupied by topics related to the idea of \u200b\u200bunlimited and formidable God's power.

Strictly symmetrical religious compositions were dominated by the figure of Christ and narrative cycles, primarily on biblical and gospel themes (formidable prophecies of the Apocalypse and the Last Judgment with the presentation of the theological scene of the hierarchical structure of the world, paradise and the righteous, hell and sinners condemned to eternal torment, weighing the good and evil deeds of the dead, etc.).

In the X-XI centuries. evolves the technique of window color stained-glass windows, the composition of which at first was very primitive. Glass vessels and icon lamps begin to be made. Enamel techniques, ivory carving, casting, embossing, art weaving, jewelry, book miniatures, whose art is closely connected with sculpture and wall painting, are being developed. All kinds of fences, gratings, locks, hinges for doors and covers of chests, shackles of chests and cabinets, etc. are made in large quantities from wrought iron. Bronze was used for door knockers, which were often cast in the shape of animal or human heads. Doors with reliefs, fonts, candelabra, arms, etc. were cast and minted from bronze.

In the XI century. trellises (woven carpets) are beginning to be made, on which multi-figure compositions and complex ornaments, which are heavily influenced by Byzantine and Arabic art, are made using weaving.

Romanesque style furniture

Furniture of the Romanesque period exactly corresponded to the mentality and standard of living of a medieval man, satisfying only his elementary needs. It is possible to speak about furniture art, and even that with a great deal of conventionality, starting from the 9th century.

Carved oak cabinet, Lower Saxony

Chair in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, Italy - St. Peter "s Basilica

The interior of the house was scarce: in most cases, the floor was earthen. Only in the palace of a wealthy signor or king did the floor sometimes bridge with stone slabs. And only a very rich person could afford not only to lay the floor with stone, but to create an ornament on it with colored stone. From the earthen and stone floors, from the stone walls in the rooms of houses and castles it was constantly damp and cold, so the floor was covered with a layer of straw. In rich houses, the floor was covered with straw mats, and during the holidays - armfuls of fresh flowers and herbs. In the secular literature of the late Middle Ages, the descriptions of the houses of kings and noble nobles often mention the floor in the banquet hall, strewn with flowers. However, the aesthetic factor played a very small role here.

In the houses of the highest nobility, it was customary to block the stone walls with carpets brought from the countries of the East. The very presence of the carpet testified to the nobility and wealth of its owner. When the art of making woven carpets (trellises) developed, they began to tighten the wall in order to save heat.

The main living room of the Signor’s house is the central hall, which served as a living room and dining room, in the center of which there was a hearth. Smoke from the hearth went out into the hole in the ceiling of the room. Only a lot of time later, in the XII-XIII centuries, they guessed to move the hearth to the wall, and then put it in a niche and equip it with a cap that pulled smoke into a wide, non-closing pipe. By night, servants filled the embers with ashes to keep them warm longer. The sleeping quarters were often made common, therefore the beds in such sleeping quarters were arranged very wide, where the owners often slept with the guests, warming each other. Separate bedrooms began to be arranged in rich houses, which were used only by the owners of the house and the most honored guests.

The bedrooms for the signor and his wife were usually made in small and cramped side rooms, where their beds were set on high wooden platforms with steps and a canopy, which was twitched to protect against night cold and drafts.

Due to the fact that the technology of manufacturing window glass was not known in the early Middle Ages, the windows were not initially glazed, but were taken away by stone gratings. They were made high from the ground and were very narrow, so twilight reigned in the rooms. Spiral staircases were widely used, which was very convenient for moving, for example, on the floors of the donjon tower. The wooden rafters of the roof inside the building remained open. Only later did they learn to make false ceilings from boards.

The twilight of the cold rooms of the Romanesque era houses was compensated by the bright and colorful coloring of plain furniture, expensive embroidered tablecloths, elegant dishes (metal, stone, glass), carpets, animal skins.

The range of furniture objects in residential premises was small and consisted of various types of chairs, stools, armchairs, beds, tables and, of course, chests - the main furniture objects of that time, less often - cabinets.

At the hearths and at the table, they sat on roughly shabby benches and primitive stools with knots that served as legs were inserted into the seating boards.

Apparently, they were the forerunners of the three-legged stools and chairs that were very common in Western Europe. From antique furniture for sitting, only one form of folding stool or chair with X-shaped crossing legs (like the Greek diffros okladios or the ancient Roman village of Kurulis - the Kurula chair), easily carried by the servant for his master, continued to live. At the table or at the hearth, only the signor had his place. For him, a ceremonial chair or a chair was assembled, made of chiseled balusters (rods), with a high back, elbows (or without them) and a footrest in order to protect the stone floor from cold. True, rarely, boardwalk chairs and armchairs were made in this era. In Scandinavia, a number of seats have been preserved, decorated with through and flat carvings depicting a complex decorative pattern of fantastic animals intertwined with straps and branches.

Front seats with high backs were also made, which were intended for the highest hierarchs of the church. One of the rare surviving specimens that have lost the crossbeams on the backs is the bishop's throne of the 11th century. (Cathedral of Anagni). Its decor, consisting of arches on the front and side walls, is clearly inspired by Romanesque architecture. An example of a folding seat with cruciform legs is the stool of St. Ramon in the Cathedral of Rod de Isabena in Spain, richly decorated with carvings. The legs of the stool end with animal legs, in the upper part they turn into lion heads. The image (Cathedral in Durham, England) of a seat with a music stand of a very rare type, intended for copyist monks, has been preserved. The seat is equipped with a high back, its side walls are decorated with openwork carved arches. The movable music stand rests on two slats extending from the back and fixed in grooves on the top of the front legs. Seating furniture such as benches were commonly used in temples and monasteries. The decor on the benches was clearly borrowed from the architectural decor and was made in the form of carved or painted arches and round rosettes.

A sample of an ornate bench from the church of San Clemente in Taula (Spain, XII century) has been preserved. This bench, made in the form of a kind of throne, has three places, separated by columns, between which three arches are installed and the side walls. The side walls and the canopy are richly decorated with openwork carvings. It was once painted: in some places traces of red paint remained on it.

In general, the seating furniture was uncomfortable and heavy. Upholstery on stools, chairs, benches and chairs was not. To hide defects in joints or poorly treated wooden surfaces, the furniture was covered with a thick layer of soil and paint. Sometimes an untreated wooden frame was covered with canvas, which was covered with soil (gesso) from a mixture of chalk, gypsum and glue, and then painted with paints.

During this period, beds become very important, the frames of which are mounted on chiseled legs and are surrounded by a low lattice.

Other types of beds, decorated with openwork semicircular arches, borrow the shape of a chest and rest on square legs. All beds are equipped with a wooden canopy and a canopy, which was supposed to hide the sleeping person and protect him from the cold and drafts. But such beds belonged mainly to noble nobles and ministers of the church. Beds for poor people were rather primitive and were made in the form of a kind of capacity for a mattress, similar to a chest without a lid, with a small recess in the middle of the front and back walls. Leg stands ended with chiseled cones, and a high wall with a small wooden canopy was made at the head.

Tables in the early period are still very primitive. This is just a removable board or a roughly knocked together shield that was mounted on two goats. The expression to set tables began precisely from that time, when, as necessary, tables were set or removed after the meal. In the mature Romanesque period, rectangular tables are made, the tabletop of which does not rest on legs, but on two side shields connected by one or two pronogs (longitudinal bars), the ends of which protrude outward and wedge. There are no carvings and decorations on such tables, with the exception of a few semicircular fillets and curly notches of the sides. More complex in design and shape are tables with round and octagonal countertops, standing on one central support in the form of a curbstone of a rather complex relief. It is also known that monasteries often used stone tables.

But the most versatile and practical furniture item in the Romanesque era was the chest. It could simultaneously serve as a container, bed, bench and even a table. The shape of the chest, despite its primitive design, originates from ancient sarcophagi and gradually becomes more diverse. Some types of chests had massive and very tall legs. For greater durability, chests were usually studded with iron shackles. Small chests could be easily carried in case of danger. Such chests often did not have any jewelry and, above all, met the requirements of convenience and durability. Later, when the chest took its special place among other pieces of furniture, it was made on high legs, and the front side was decorated with flat carvings. Being the ancestor of all other, later come forms of furniture, a chest up to the XVIII century. retained great importance in the home environment.

Placed vertically on its side, the chest was the prototype of the cabinet, most often with one door, a gable roof and a pediment decorated with flat carvings and coloring. His iron chains are also decorated with curly notches. Gradually appear, especially in churches, tall cupboards with two doors and short rectangular legs in cross section. They kept church and monastery utensils. One of these cabinets is available in Obazia (Correz department). Its two front doors are reinforced with iron forging and decorated with round carved arches, the side walls are decorated with paired arches in two tiers - the decor is clearly architectural in nature; massive cabinet legs are a continuation of the vertical racks of the frame. A similar cabinet exists in Halberstadt Cathedral. This one-door wardrobe is decorated with slotted dragons on both sides of the pediment, a carved rosette and bound in massive iron stripes. The top of the door is rounded. All this gives the influence of architecture on the decoration of furniture, typical of the Romanesque style.

Typically, cabinets, as well as chests, trimmed with iron plates (shackles). It was these wrought iron pads that held the thick raw boards of the product, since the box and frame-panel knitting known from antiquity were not actually used here. Over time, forged lining, in addition to the reliability function, received decorative functions.

In the manufacture of such furniture, the main role belonged to the carpenter and the blacksmith, so the forms of Romanesque-style furniture are very simple and concise.

Romanesque furniture was made mainly of spruce, cedar and oak. In the mountainous regions of Western Europe, all the furniture of that era was made from soft wood - spruce or cedar; in Germany, the Scandinavian countries and England, oak was commonly used.

In the Roman era, the largest range of furniture objects, in comparison with residential premises, was intended for cathedrals and churches. Benches with music stands, vestries, church cabinets, separate music stands for reading, etc. were widely distributed in the XI-XII centuries.

Ordinary household furniture, which the villagers, artisans and small traders made and used, retained their shapes, proportions and decorations without any change for several centuries.

In religious buildings and their furnishings from the second half of the XIII century. the Gothic style begins to spread, which subordinates most Western European countries to its influence. But this new style for a long time does not affect folk arts and crafts.

Keeping traditional forms, such furniture only eases its proportions, freeing itself from an excess supply of materials. In urban furniture, starting from the 14th century, elements of Gothic decor, printed on a Romanesque design, are already beginning to be found.

Used materials training. benefits: Grashin A.A. A short course in the style evolution of furniture - Moscow: Architecture-S, 2007

Romanesque style - the artistic style that prevailed in Western Europe, as well as affecting some countries of Eastern Europe, in the XI-XII centuries    (in a number of places - and in the XIII century.), One of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.

The development of Romanesque architecture was associated with monumental construction, which began in Western Europe at the time of the formation and heyday of feudal states, the revitalization of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe arose in the art of barbarian peoples. Such, for example, are the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (526-530), church buildings of the late Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (795-805), the church in Gernrode of the Otton period with its plastic wholeness of large masses (second half of the 10th century) .

Tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna

Combining classical and barbarian elements, distinguished by severe grandeur, she prepared the formation of the Romanesque style, which subsequently purposefully developed over two centuries. In each country, this style evolved under the influence and strong influence of local traditions - antique, Syrian, Byzantine, Arab.

The main role in the Romanesque style was assigned to the harsh fortress architecture: monastery complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period are the temple-fortress and castle-fortress, located in elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconicism of the exterior decoration - the building always harmoniously blended with the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepwise recessed portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period are the temple-fortress and castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - the dungeon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque cathedral:

• The plan is based on the early Christian basilica, i.e. the longitudinal organization of space
• The enlargement of the choir or the eastern altar of the temple
• Temple height increase
• Replacement in the largest cathedrals of the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone arches. The vaults were of several types: box-shaped, cross-shaped, often cylindrical, flat along the beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).
• Heavy arches demanded powerful walls and columns
• The main motive of the interior is    semicircular arches

Chapel of Penitent Sinners. Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.

     Germany.

A special place in the construction of large cathedrals in Germany took in the 12th century. powerful imperial cities on the Rhine (Speyer, Mainz, Worms). The cathedrals erected here are distinguished by the grandeur of massive clear cubic volumes, an abundance of heavy towers, and more dynamic silhouettes.

In the Worm Cathedral (1171-1234, ill. 76), built of yellow-gray sandstone, the division of volumes is less developed than in French churches, which creates a sense of solidity of forms. Such a technique as a gradual increase in volumes, smooth linear rhythms is not used. Squat towers of the middle cross and four tall round towers, as if cutting into the sky, with conical stone tents in the corners of the temple on the western and eastern sides give it the character of a harsh fortress. Smooth surfaces of impenetrable walls with narrow windows dominate everywhere, only sparingly animated by a frieze in the form of arches along the cornice. Weakly protruding lysens (scapulae — vertical flat and narrow ledges on the wall) connect the arched frieze, the basement and the galleries at the top. In the Worm Cathedral, the pressure of the vaults on the walls is relieved. The central nave is covered by a cross vault and aligned with the cross arches of the side naves. For this purpose, the so-called “coupled system” was applied, in which for each passage of the central nave there are two lateral spans. The edges of the external forms clearly express the internal volumetric and spatial structure of the building.

Worms Cathedral of St. Peter

Abbey Maria Laach, Germany

Liebmurg Cathedral, Germany

Bamberg Cathedral, east facade with two towers and polygonal choirs

     France.

Most    monuments of Romanesque art them in France, which in the 11-12 centuries. was not only the center of philosophical and theological movements, but also the wide dissemination of heretical teachings, to a certain extent overcoming the dogmatism of the official church. In the architecture of Central and Western France, the greatest variety is found in solving constructive problems, a wealth of forms. It features pronounced features of the Romanesque-style temple.

An example of this is the church of Notre Dame la Grand in Poitiers (11-12 centuries). This is a low-lit, low-lit temple, with a simple plan, with a low-protruding transept, with a poorly developed choir framed by only three chapels. Almost equal in height, the three naves are covered with semi-cylindrical vaults and a common gable roof. The central nave is immersed in twilight - light penetrates into it through the rarely located windows of the side naves. The heaviness of the forms is emphasized by a squat three-tier tower above the middle cross. The lower tier of the western facade is divided by a portal and two semicircular arches extending into the thickness of the steppe. The upward movement, expressed by small pointed towers and a stepped pediment, is stopped by horizontal friezes with sculptures of saints. A rich ornamental carving, typical of the Poitou school, spreads along the surface of the wall, softening the severity of the structure. In the grand temples of Burgundy, which took first place among other French schools, the first steps were taken to change the design of vaulted ceilings in the type of basilic church with a high and wide middle nave, with many altars, transverse and side ships, an extensive choir and a developed, radially located crown chapel. The high, three-tier central nave was blocked by a box vault not with a semicircular arch, as in most Romanesque churches, but with light lancet outlines.

An example of such a complex type is the grandiose main five-nave monastery church of the Abbey of Cluny (1088-1107), destroyed in the early 19th century. Serving as the center of activity of the powerful Clunian order of the 11-12th centuries, it became a model for many of the temple buildings in Europe.

The temples of Burgundy are close to her: in Pare le Manial (beginning of the 12th century), Vezeda (first third of the 12th century) and Authen (first third of the 12th century). They are characterized by the presence of a wide hall, located in front of the naves, the use of high towers. Burgundy temples are distinguished by perfection of forms, clarity of dissected volumes, measured rhythm, completeness of parts, their subordination to the whole.

The Romanesque monastic churches are usually small in size, the arches are low, the transepts are small. With a similar layout, the design of the facades was different. For the southern regions of France, near the Mediterranean Sea, for the temples of Provence (in the past, the ancient Greek colony and the Roman province), they are associated with ancient late Roman order architecture, the monuments of which are preserved here in abundance, simple temples in form and proportions dominated by the richness of the sculptural decoration of the pa facades, sometimes reminiscent of the Roman triumphal arches (Saint-Trofim Church in Arles, 12th century). Modified domed buildings penetrated the southwestern regions.

Priory of Serrabona, France

     Italy.

There was no stylistic unity in Italian architecture. This is largely due to the fragmentation of Italy and the gravitation of its individual areas to the culture of Byzantium or the Romance - those countries with which they were connected by a long economic and cultural communication. Local Late Antique and early Christian traditions, the influence of the art of the medieval West and East determined the peculiarity of the Romanesque architecture of the advanced schools of Central Italy - the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, in the 11-12 centuries. freed from feudal dependence and began the extensive construction of city cathedrals. Lombard architecture played an important role in the development of the vaulted structure and skeleton of the building.

In the architecture of Tuscany, the ancient tradition was manifested in the completeness and harmonious clarity of forms, in the festivity of the appearance of the majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-nave Cathedral of Pisa (1063-1118), the baptistery (baptismal church, 1153 - 14th century), the sloping campanile bell tower (the Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, was completed in the 13-14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery -Santo.

Each building stands out freely, distinguished by simple enclosed volumes of a cube and cylinder and sparkling white marble on a green grass-covered area off the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the breakdown of the masses, proportionality is achieved. Elegant white-marble Romanesque arcades with Roman-Corinthian and composite capitals divide the facade and outer walls of all structures into tiers, facilitating their massiveness and emphasizing the design. The large cathedral gives the impression of lightness, which is enhanced by inlays of colored marble of dark red and dark green color (a similar decor was typical of Florence, where the so-called “inlaid style” became widespread). The elliptical dome over the middle cross completed its clear and harmonious image.

Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy