Hellas left a huge mark on history and influenced almost all spheres of life in modern Western Civilization. Science, culture, art, construction – you can’t list all the industries. Even in the specific weapons business there will be representatives who are in one way or another connected with the achievements of Ancient Greece. And today we propose to look at an example of such a plan - Greek fire, which thundered throughout the world in the Middle Ages. What kind of weapon this is, who decided to use it and when, and why it was used, we will describe in detail in the article.

What is Greek fire

Let's start with a small digression. Everyone knows that Greece is a maritime power with a large number of islands. In ancient times, remote territories were extremely difficult to defend, especially in the conditions of constantly warring Greek regions. Therefore, the islands were captured, recaptured and recaptured, with epic battles for ownership of the territory unfolding, often on the water. The opposing ships sought to sink each other, and various means were used to achieve this goal. For example, back in the 5th century BC. the first flammable mixture was invented, from which the Greek fire was later kindled.

Surviving sources note that the wonder of such weapons was not only their great destructive power (wooden ships ignited instantly), but also in the complexity of extinguishing. Those on board became even more panicked when they realized that the growing fire could not be extinguished with ordinary water. And what’s more: it could burn even on a water surface! At the same time, the range of the gun was 20-30 m, which is not enough for land battles, but more than enough to set fire to slow ancient ships.

Thus, Greek fire is a mixture that is easily ignited, burns quickly and does not react to the influence of water. Initially, they suffered colossal destruction, but later they found a way to fight the spread of fire. However, during its use, the fire-breathing weapon managed to enter the annals of history and become famous throughout the world.

First use and subsequent development of Greek fire

The all-consuming flame did not immediately become a famous medieval weapon, so we suggest tracing the stages of its formation.

Discoveries of the ancient era

The first recorded use of an incendiary unquenchable mixture, surprisingly, was recorded in a battle on land. This event took place at the Battle of Delium (424 BC): the Hellenes released tongues of flame from a hollow tree, setting fire to spaces occupied by enemy troops. Unfortunately, no reliable information has been preserved about what ancient Greek fire consisted of, but a little more than half a century later, in 350 BC, this weapon found use again. Here is what the ancient author writes about that period of time:

“To set fire to enemy ships, they use a flammable solution made from sulfur, incense, tow, resin and sawdust.”

Thus, this is the first recipe for Greek fire known to the world. Later, cases of the use of incendiary mixtures were noted in battles near the island of Rhodes (190 BC) and during clashes during the period of early Christianity (III century AD). But still, ancient solutions are not yet quite the famous fire that struck fear into medieval warriors. The ancient Greek weapon was significantly improved only in the 7th century AD.

Read also: Architecture of Greece - features of construction in antiquity and modernity

Byzantine heyday

In 673, the Syrian inventor Callinicus designed a special “siphonophore” for throwing fire. The device was made of copper, had the shape of a pipe and operated on the principle of a pump: the incendiary mixture was poured inside, and under the pressure of the bellows and compressed air, the fire erupted outward in a powerful jet with a roar.

Kalinnik lived in Heliopolis, which was just at that time conquered by the Arabs. Therefore, the engineer hastily fled to Byzantium, where he proposed to Emperor Constantine IV to use his invention in the war with the Arabs. It was from the shores of the Byzantine Empire that the fame of incendiary weapons began.

For the first time, Kallinik's development was used in the battles of Cilicia. The Byzantine fleet prepared several large double-decker ships loaded with combustible mixture and siphons. When the enemy flotilla approached the Byzantines at a sufficient distance, the emperor ordered to open fire. The flames covered the enemy ships and the surrounding waters: the Arabs were terribly shocked and in panic tried to escape the fire by fleeing.

Thus, the Arab army suffered its first defeat, after which a whole series of crushing victories for the Byzantines awaited the eastern enemy. By the way, the Russian fleet, which went under the leadership of Prince Igor to conquer Constantinople, also known as Constantinople, was also destroyed. Later, the Venetian crusaders also failed in the battle with the Byzantines.

In a word, the emperor’s army on the water had no equal with Greek fire, and Constantine understood this very well. Therefore, the secret of the production of Greek fire became a military secret, the disclosure of which was equated to high treason. And those especially interested in what Greek fire is were told a beautiful legend that supposedly an angel appeared from heaven to the Emperor of Byzantium Constantine and gave him a recipe for unquenchable fire.

Analogues and decline of former glory

The true composition of Greek fire was never disclosed, and over time the recipe was irretrievably lost. Only one thing is known for certain: it was a flammable mixture consisting of oil produced on the Tasman Peninsula. However, in subsequent centuries the use of similar weapons was recorded: for example, Greek fire was used against the Normans during the siege of Albanian Durazzo (1106). Written sources also mention information that in the 11th-12th centuries Western Slavs, British, Russians and Asians owned similar weapons. Moreover, incendiary mixtures were now used not only at sea, but also on land: during siege or defense of cities and fortresses.

However, compositions similar to Greek fire were no longer so effective. Of course, the side that used them often won, but many had already learned to fight fire with sand and vinegar, especially since not all similar mixtures could withstand even the effects of water. So gradually Greek fire lost its glory and was used less and less. The swan song of the once formidable weapon was the battle for Constantinople, which was besieged by the army of the Turkish Sultan in 1453. Only 1 Byzantine ship and 4 allied ships of Genoa, with the help of Greek fire, were able to defeat the Ottoman flotilla numbering 150 ships! Moreover, in addition to the ships, the Turks lost more than 12,000 of their soldiers.

The flammable composition, which could not be extinguished with water, was known to the ancient Greeks. “To burn enemy ships, a mixture of burning resin, sulfur, tow, incense and sawdust of resinous wood is used,” wrote Aeneas Tacticus in his essay “On the Art of the Commander” in 350 BC. In 424 BC, a certain flammable substance was used in the land battle of Delia: the Greeks sprayed fire from a hollow log towards the enemy. Unfortunately, like many discoveries of Antiquity, the secrets of this weapon were lost, and liquid unquenchable fire had to be reinvented.

This was done in 673 by Kallinikos, or Kallinikos, a resident of Heliopolis captured by the Arabs on the territory of modern Lebanon. This mechanic fled to Byzantium and offered his services and his invention to Emperor Constantine IV. The historian Theophanes wrote that vessels with the mixture invented by Callinikos were thrown by catapults at the Arabs during the siege of Constantinople. The liquid flared up when it came into contact with air, and no one could put out the fire. The Arabs fled in horror from the weapon, called “Greek fire.”

Siphon with Greek fire on a mobile siege tower. (Pinterest)

Perhaps Callinikos also invented a device for throwing fire, called a siphon, or siphonophore. These copper pipes, painted to look like dragons, were installed on the high decks of the dromons. Under the influence of compressed air from the forge bellows, they threw out a stream of fire at enemy ships with a terrible roar. The range of these flamethrowers did not exceed thirty meters, but for several centuries enemy ships were afraid to approach the Byzantine battleships. Handling Greek fire required extreme caution. The chronicles mention many cases when the Byzantines themselves died in unquenchable flames due to broken vessels with a secret mixture.

Armed with Greek fire, Byzantium became the mistress of the seas. In 722, a major victory was won over the Arabs. In 941, an unquenchable flame drove the boats of the Russian prince Igor Rurikovich away from Constantinople. The secret weapon retained its significance two centuries later, when it was used against Venetian ships carrying participants of the Fourth Crusade on board.

It is not surprising that the secret of making Greek fire was strictly guarded by the Byzantine emperors. Lez the Philosopher ordered the mixture to be produced only in secret laboratories under heavy guard. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus wrote in instructions to his heir: “You must take care of the Greek fire most of all... and if anyone dares to ask you for it, as we ourselves were often asked, then reject these requests and answer that the fire was opened by the Angel to Constantine, the first Emperor of the Christians. The great emperor, as a warning to his heirs, ordered a curse to be carved in the temple on the throne against anyone who dared to convey this discovery to foreigners...”

Horrible tales could not force Byzantium's competitors to stop trying to discover the secret. In 1193, the Arab Saladan wrote: “Greek fire is kerosene (petroleum), sulfur, pitch and tar.” The recipe of the alchemist Vincetius (XIII century) is more detailed and exotic: “To obtain Greek fire, you need to take an equal amount of molten sulfur, tar, one-fourth of opopanax (plant juice) and pigeon droppings; dissolve all this, well dried, in turpentine or sulfuric acid, then place it in a strong, closed glass vessel and heat it in an oven for fifteen days. After this, the contents of the vessel are distilled like wine alcohol and stored in finished form.”

However, the secret of Greek fire became known not thanks to scientific research, but because of banal betrayal. In 1210, Emperor Alexei III Angel lost his throne and defected to the Konya Sultan. He treated the defector kindly and made him commander of the army. It is not surprising that just eight years later, crusader Oliver L'Ecolator testified that the Arabs used Greek fire against the crusaders at the siege of Damieta.

Alexey III Angel. (Pinterest)

Soon Greek fire was no longer just Greek. The secret of its manufacture became known to different peoples. French historian Jean de Joinville, a participant in the Seventh Crusade, personally came under fire during the Saracens’ assault on the crusader fortifications: “The nature of Greek fire is as follows: its projectile is huge, like a vessel for vinegar, and the tail stretching behind is like a giant spear. His flight was accompanied by a terrible noise, like heavenly thunder. The Greek fire in the air was like a dragon flying in the sky. Such a bright light emanated from it that it seemed as if the sun had risen over the camp. The reason for this was the enormous fiery mass and brilliance contained in it.”

Russian chronicles mention that the residents of Vladimir and Novgorod, with the help of some kind of fire, “ignited the enemy fortresses and there was a storm and a great smoke was pulled down on them.” The unquenchable flame was used by the Cumans, Turks and Tamerlane's troops. Greek fire ceased to be a secret weapon and lost its strategic importance. In the 14th century, it was almost never mentioned in chronicles and annals. The last time Greek fire was used as a weapon was in 1453 during the capture of Constantinople. The historian Francis wrote that he was thrown at each other by both the Turks besieging the city and the defending Byzantines. At the same time, both sides also used cannons that fired using ordinary gunpowder. It was much more practical and safer than capricious liquid and quickly replaced Greek fire in military affairs.

Juan de Joinville. (Pinterest)

Only scientists have not lost interest in the self-igniting composition. In search of a recipe, they carefully studied the Byzantine chronicles. A note was discovered made by Princess Anna Comnena, stating that the composition of the fire included only sulfur, resin and tree sap. Apparently, despite her noble origin, Anna was not privy to state secrets, and her recipe yielded little to scientists. In January 1759, the French chemist and artillery commissioner André Dupre announced that, after much research, he had discovered the secret of Greek fire. In Le Havre, with a huge crowd of people and in the presence of the king, tests were carried out. The catapult threw a pot of resinous liquid at a sloop anchored at sea, which instantly burst into flames. The amazed Louis XV ordered to buy from Dupre all the papers relating to his discovery and destroy them, hoping in this way to hide traces of the dangerous weapon. Soon Dupre himself died under unclear circumstances. The recipe for Greek fire was lost again.

Disputes about the composition of medieval weapons continued in the 20th century. In 1937, the German chemist Stettbacher wrote in his book Gunpowder and Explosives that Greek fire consisted of “sulfur, salt, tar, asphalt and burnt lime.” In 1960, the Englishman Partington, in his voluminous work “The History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder,” suggested that the secret weapons of the Byzantines included light fractions of petroleum distillation, tar and sulfur. Fierce disputes between him and his French colleagues were caused by the possible presence of saltpeter in the fire. Partington's opponents proved the presence of saltpeter by the fact that, according to the testimony of Arab chroniclers, it was possible to extinguish Greek fire only with the help of vinegar.

Today, the most likely version is considered to be the following composition of Greek fire: an unrefined product of the light fraction of petroleum distillation, various resins, vegetable oils and, possibly, saltpeter or quicklime. This recipe vaguely resembles a primitive version of modern napalm and flamethrower charges. So today's flamethrowers, Molotov cocktail throwers and Game of Thrones characters who constantly throw fireballs at each other can consider the medieval inventor Callinikos their ancestor.

Information about the use of flamethrowers dates back to antiquity. These technologies were then adopted by the Byzantine army. The Romans somehow set fire to the enemy fleet as early as 618, during the siege of Constantinople undertaken by the Avar Khagan in alliance with the Iranian Shah Khosrow II. The besiegers used the Slavic naval flotilla to cross, which was burned in the Golden Horn Bay.

Warrior with a hand-held flamethrower siphon. From the Vatican manuscript of "Polyorcetics" by Heron of Byzantium(Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1605). IX-XI centuries

The inventor of “Greek fire” was the Syrian engineer Callinicus, a refugee from Heliopolis captured by the Arabs (modern Baalbek in Lebanon). In 673, he demonstrated his invention to Basileus Constantine IV and was accepted into service.

It was truly a hellish weapon, from which there was no escape: “liquid fire” burned even on water.

The basis of “liquid fire” was natural pure oil. Its exact recipe remains a secret to this day. However, the technology of using a combustible mixture was much more important. It was necessary to accurately determine the degree of heating of the hermetically sealed boiler and the force of pressure on the surface of the air mixture pumped using bellows. The boiler was connected to a special siphon, to the opening of which an open fire was brought at the right moment, the boiler tap was opened, and the flammable liquid, ignited, was poured onto enemy ships or siege engines. Siphons were usually made of bronze. The length of the fiery stream they emitted did not exceed 25 meters.

Siphon for "Greek fire"

Oil for “liquid fire” was also extracted in the Northern Black Sea region and the Azov region, where archaeologists abundantly find shards from Byzantine amphorae with a resinous sediment on the walls. These amphorae served as containers for transporting oil, identical in chemical composition to those from Kerch and Taman.

Callinicus's invention was tested in the same year 673, when with its help the Arab fleet that first besieged Constantinople was destroyed. According to the Byzantine historian Theophanes, "the Arabs were shocked" and "fled in great fear."

Byzantine ship,armed with "Greek fire", attacks the enemy.
Miniature from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (MS Graecus Vitr. 26-2). XII century Madrid, Spanish National Library

Since then, “liquid fire” has more than once rescued the capital of Byzantium and helped the Romans win battles. Basileus Leo VI the Wise (866–912) wrote proudly: “We have various means, both old and new, to destroy enemy ships and the people fighting on them. This is a fire prepared for siphons, from which it rushes with thunderous noise and smoke, burning the ships to which we direct it.”

The Rus first became acquainted with the effect of “liquid fire” during Prince Igor’s campaign against Constantinople in 941. Then the capital of the Roman Empire was besieged by a large Russian fleet - about two hundred and fifty boats. The city was blocked from land and sea. The Byzantine fleet at this time was far from the capital, fighting with Arab pirates in the Mediterranean. The Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos had at hand only a dozen and a half ships, written off due to disrepair. Nevertheless, the basileus decided to give the Russians battle. Siphons with “Greek fire” were installed on the half-rotten vessels.

Seeing the Greek ships, the Russians raised their sails and rushed towards them. The Romans were waiting for them in the Golden Horn Bay.

The Russians boldly approached the Greek ships, intending to board them. Russian boats surrounded the ship of the Roman naval commander Theophanes, who was walking ahead of the Greek battle formation. At this moment, the wind suddenly died down, and the sea became completely calm. Now the Greeks could use their flamethrowers without interference. The instant change in weather was perceived by them as help from above. Greek sailors and soldiers perked up. And from Feofan’s ship, surrounded by Russian boats, jets of fire poured out in all directions. Flammable liquid spilled onto the water. The sea around the Russian ships seemed to suddenly flare up; several rooks burst into flames at once.

The effect of the terrible weapon shocked Igor’s warriors to the core. In an instant, all their courage disappeared, the Russians were seized by panic. “Seeing this,” writes a contemporary of the events, Bishop Liutprand of Cremona, “the Russians immediately began to throw themselves from their ships into the sea, preferring to drown in the waves rather than burn in flames. Others, burdened with armor and helmets, sank to the bottom and were no longer seen, while some who stayed afloat burned even in the middle of the sea waves.” The Greek ships that arrived in time “completed the rout, sank many ships along with their crew, killed many, and took even more alive” (Continued by Theophanes). Igor, as Lev the Deacon testifies, escaped with “hardly a dozen rooks” that managed to land on the shore.

This is how our ancestors became acquainted with what we now call the superiority of advanced technologies.

“Olyadny” (Olyadiya in Old Russian - boat, ship) fire became a byword in Rus' for a long time. The Life of Vasily the New says that Russian soldiers returned to their homeland “to tell what happened to them and what they suffered at the behest of God.” The living voices of these people scorched by fire were brought to us by the Tale of Bygone Years: “Those who returned to their land told about what had happened; and they said about the fire of the fire that the Greeks have this lightning from heaven; and, letting it go, they burned us, and for this reason they did not overcome them.” These stories are indelibly etched in the memory of the Russians. Leo the Deacon reports that even thirty years later, Svyatoslav’s warriors still could not remember liquid fire without trembling, since “they heard from their elders” that with this fire the Greeks turned Igor’s fleet into ashes.

View of Constantinople. Drawing from the Nuremberg Chronicle. 1493

It took a whole century for fear to be forgotten, and the Russian fleet again dared to approach the walls of Constantinople. This time it was the army of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, led by his son Vladimir.

In the second half of July 1043, the Russian flotilla entered the Bosphorus and occupied the harbor on the right bank of the strait, opposite the Golden Horn Bay, where the Roman fleet was laid up under the protection of heavy chains blocking the entrance to the bay. On the same day, Basileus Constantine IX Monomakh ordered all available naval forces to be prepared for battle - not only combat triremes, but also cargo ships on which siphons with “liquid fire” were installed. Cavalry detachments were sent along the coast. Closer to night, the basileus, according to the Byzantine chronicler Michael Psellus, solemnly announced to the Russians that tomorrow he intended to give them a naval battle.

With the first rays of the sun cutting through the morning fog, residents of the Byzantine capital saw hundreds of Russian boats built in one line from coast to coast. “And there was not a person among us,” says Psellus, “who looked at what was happening without severe mental anxiety. I myself, standing next to the autocrat (he was sitting on a hill sloping down to the sea), watched the events from afar.” Apparently, this terrifying sight also impressed Constantine IX. Having ordered his fleet to form into battle formation, he, however, hesitated in giving the signal to begin the battle.

The tedious hours dragged on in inaction. Noon had long passed, and the chain of Russian boats still swayed on the waves of the strait, waiting for the Roman ships to leave the bay. Only when the sun began to set did the basileus, having overcome his indecision, finally order Master Vasily Theodorokan to leave the bay with two or three ships in order to draw the enemy into battle. “They sailed forward easily and orderly,” says Psellus, “the spearmen and stone throwers raised a battle cry on their decks, the fire throwers took their places and prepared to act. But at this time, many barbarian boats, separated from the rest of the fleet, quickly rushed towards our ships. Then the barbarians split up, surrounded each of the triremes on all sides and began to poke holes in the Roman ships from below with pikes; At this time, ours were throwing stones and spears at them from above. When the fire that burned their eyes flew at the enemy, some barbarians rushed into the sea to swim to their own, others completely despaired and could not figure out how to escape.”

According to Skylitsa, Vasily Theodorokan burned 7 Russian boats, sank 3 along with people, and captured one, jumping into it with weapons in his hands and engaging in battle with the Rus who were there, from which some were killed by him, while others rushed into the water.

Seeing the master’s successful actions, Constantine signaled the attack to the entire Roman fleet. The fiery triremes, surrounded by smaller ships, burst out of the Golden Horn Bay and rushed towards the Rus. The latter were obviously discouraged by the unexpectedly large number of the Roman squadron. Psellus recalls that “when the triremes crossed the sea and found themselves right next to the canoes, the barbarian formation crumbled, the chain broke, some ships dared to remain in place, but most of them fled.”

In the gathering twilight, the bulk of the Russian boats left the Bosphorus Strait into the Black Sea, probably hoping to hide from persecution in the shallow coastal waters. Unfortunately, just at that time a strong east wind arose, which, according to Psellus, “furrowed the sea with waves and drove waves of water towards the barbarians. Some ships were immediately covered by the rising waves, while others were dragged along the sea for a long time and then thrown onto the rocks and onto the steep shore; Our triremes set off in pursuit of some of them, they sent some canoes under the water along with the crew, while other warriors from the triremes made holes and were half-submerged and brought to the nearest shore.” Russian chronicles tell that the wind “broke” the “prince’s ship,” but governor Ivan Tvorimirich, who came to the rescue, saved Vladimir, taking him into his boat. The rest of the warriors had to escape as best they could. Many of those who reached the shore died under the hooves of the Roman cavalry that arrived in time. “And then they arranged a true bloodletting for the barbarians,” Psellus concludes his story, “it seemed as if a stream of blood flowing from the rivers had colored the sea.”

The campaign of 1043 was the last in a long series of Russian invasions of the capital of the Roman Empire.

What is Greek Fire

Greek fire or " Liquid fire» - This a destructive incendiary weapon that according to historical sources was invented and used in the seventh century and later. This combustible mixture got its name in honor of the Byzantine Greeks, who especially loved to use it in battles. In addition to them, this weapon was quite often used by the Arabs, Chinese and Mongols. This weapon was extremely destructive. It struck fear into the hearts of enemies and effectively destroyed enemy personnel, ships, fortifications and other types of weapons.

Greek fire - composition.

An interesting fact is that the formula for Greek fire was so secret that it was quickly lost, and at the moment no one knows for sure the true composition of the mixture. According to historical references, we can imagine that Greek fire was somewhat similar to modern napalm. That is, it was an extremely flammable mixture that was almost impossible to extinguish. It burned easily on the surface of the water and attempts to extinguish it with the same water caused the fire to grow even larger, which also makes a reference to "termite".

Probable formula for Greek fire.

Given the availability of ingredients in that era, it can be assumed that the main components for creating Greek fire were:

• Oil;
• Oil mixtures;
• Quicklime;
• Bitumen;
• Sulfur;
• Resin;
• Saltpeter.

These ingredients are used in modern explosives, which demonstrates their potency. And besides, they were accessible and known to at least a limited circle of humanity during this period of history. The development of Greek fire is probably closely related to alchemy, the ancient predecessor of modern chemistry.

In modern conditions, attempts were made to recreate this destructive mixture using the components available at that time, but alas, they all failed.

Greek fire - effectiveness and use in battle.

As one can imagine, this flammable mixture was an extremely effective and terrible weapon. The Greeks, in their naval tactics, often set empty ships on fire using “living fire” and sent them on the enemy’s course, which ultimately set the enemy fleet on fire. In addition, there were incendiary bombs that could be launched using a catapult. Also, at that time there were some analogues of modern flamethrowers. Presumably, the mixture was heated in special boilers before being fed into the flamethrower hoses. Since the use and storage of these weapons was an extremely dangerous occupation, soldiers working with them wore special protective leather armor. The ships that carried Greek fire were treated with various products such as vinegar mixtures and talcum powder, which made them somewhat fire-resistant.

When hearing the words “Greek fire”, many people have associations with the Olympics, powerful athletes and the spirit of wrestling. But Greek fire has nothing to do with high performance sports.
For centuries, this formidable weapon protected Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, from hordes of enemies.

Greek fire is a mixture of flammable materials that was in service with medieval Byzantium. The weapon with which Greek fire was sent to the enemy was a copper pipe called a “siphon.” A special team filled the siphon with Greek fire, set it on fire and poured it on the enemies. It is not known exactly how the process of throwing Greek fire took place, but it can be assumed that compressed air was used for this, which was pumped into it by bellows. Now it is not possible to establish the exact recipe for Greek fire (at least, not a single manuscript has yet been found with a complete description of such a recipe). Of the materials used in the Middle Ages, the composition of Greek fire is assumed to contain petroleum, sulfur and various flammable oils. But there was one more secret ingredient that Byzantine masters added to the mixture. Which one exactly is a mystery.

The first reliable information about the use of Greek fire dates back to 673 AD, when the Byzantine fleet completely burned the Arab fleet. The geographical location of the Byzantine Empire presupposed the existence of a large navy, so it is not surprising that Greek fire found its main use among sailors. Nothing could resist the heat of the flaming mixture of Greek fire - even water burned! What can we say about the wooden medieval ships that flared up like matches.

It is unlikely that the Byzantines had technologies capable of creating high pressure in the pipe, so it will not be possible to compare Greek fire with modern flamethrowers. Most likely, the fiery jet hit not far away - a maximum of 15-20 meters, but this was enough to successfully fight the enemy fleet and plunge the enemies into horror. Over time, the only tactic of the enemy fleet was to escape from the Byzantine dromons (that’s what ships armed with siphons were called). And, I must say, the enemies mastered it perfectly. But by constantly dodging the deadly streams of Greek fire and not engaging in close combat with the Roman ships, it was impossible to win a single naval battle.

The hegemony of the Byzantine fleet at sea lasted for several centuries. Everyone “received” from the Greek fire: Arabs, Europeans, and Russian princes who decided to try their luck in a campaign against Constantinople. But the Byzantine land army did not have such trump cards as the navy, so it suffered defeat after defeat. And with the invention of gunpowder and equipping ships with cannons, Arab wars finally had the opportunity to shoot Byzantine ships from afar. The miracle weapon in the form of Greek fire instantly became useless and nothing could stop the imminent fall of Constantinople.

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